Fischer T. (2008) Obstructed magic: On the myths of observing designing and of sharing design observations. In: Nakpan W., Mahaek E., Teeraparbwong K. & Nilkaew P. (eds.) Proceedings of the 13th CAADRIA. Pimniyom Press, Chiang Mai: 278–284. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/5174
Much design research, including much research in the computer-aided architectural design field, is based on the assumption that the process of designing is observable and that what happens in designing can be known, explicitly described and shared. In this paper I examine this assumption from my subjective viewpoint and conclude that designing occurs behind a blind spot. It can be concluded that existing design process models used in the “science of design” are based on invention rather than on empirical evidence, which in turn suggests that science should be studied as a form of design instead of studying designing scientifically.
Fischer T. (2011) One-behind-the-many metaphysics and the myriad things. In: Herr C. M., Gu N., Roudayski S. & Schnabel M. A. (eds.) Proceedings of the 16th CAADRIA Conference. School of Architecture and Built Environment. The University of Newcastle, Newcastle: 623–632. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/5175
In this paper I identify the metaphysical assumptions underlying much of the science, technology, education and design thinking practiced in contemporary CAAD research in Asia as a Western import. Citing some traditional Asian complements to such assumptions and offering an alternative model, I hope to enable a discussion about assumptions underlying our field as well as an awareness of different standards of thought and responsibility between which CAAD research in Asia may operate.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to present a cybernetic way of seeing analog and digital along with a basic vocabulary for discussing assumptions underlying the use of both terms. Design/methodology/approach – Taking analog and digital not as properties of observed phenomena but as properties of observers, I ask not what is digital or analog, but what I do when I use these terms. I analyze introspectively, and report on, what I think my assumptions are when using the two terms. Findings: I develop a basic vocabulary to describe engagements that I describe as analog or digital. This vocabulary is applicable beyond technical contexts and suitable also for discussing social and creative processes. It includes a kind of observer who I call matchmaker. Research limitations/implications – The presented research is preliminary and subjective. Originality/value – While previous discussions consider analog and digital as properties of observed phenomena, they are considered here as properties of observers. The presented discussion is sufficiently abstract to account for the analog and the digital at various scales, including electronic signal processing and human interaction. The author argues that discussions of engagements described as analog or digital must account for observers of these engagements, including those who act as their matchmakers.
Fischer T. (2012) Design enigma: A typographical metaphor for epistemological processes, including designing. In: Fischer T., Biswas K. D., Ham R. T., Naka R. & Huang W. (eds.) Proceedings of the 17th CAADRIA Conference. Association for Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia (CAADRIA), Hong Kong: 679–688. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/5177
Presenting a hard-to-predict typography-varying system predicated on Nazi-era cryptography, this paper illustrates conditions under which unrepeatable phenomena can arise, even from straight-forward mechanisms. such conditions arise where systems are observed from outside of boundaries that arise through their observation, and where such systems refer to themselves in a circular fashion. This illustration aims to show the dilemma of scientific design research: Objective outsiders are mystified while those subjectively involved understand.
Fischer T. (2014) Circular causality and indeterminism in machines for design. Frontiers of Architectural Research 3(4): 368–375. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/2838
Presenting a hard-to-predict typography-varying system predicated on Nazi-era cryptography, the Enigma cipher machine, this paper illustrates conditions under which unrepeatable phenomena can arise, even from straight-forward mechanisms. Such conditions arise where systems are observed from outside of boundaries that arise through their observation, and where such systems refer to themselves in a circular fashion. It argues that the Enigma cipher machine is isomorphous with Heinz von Foersters portrayals of non-triviality in his non-trivial machine (NTM), but not with surprising human behaviour, and it demonstrates that the NTM does not account for spontaneity as it is observed in humans in general.
Purpose: The scientific criterion of determinability (predictability) can be framed in realist or in constructivist terms. This can pose a challenge to design researchers who operate between scientific research (which favors a realist view of determinism/indeterminism) and design practice (which favors a constructivist view of determinability/indeterminability). This paper aims to develop a framework to navigate this challenge. Design/methodology/approach – A critical approach to “scientific” design research is developed by examining the notion of (in)determinism, with particular attention to the observer-based projection of systemic boundaries, and the constructivist understanding of how such boundaries are constituted. This is illustrated using automata theory. A decision-making framework is then developed based on a diagram known as the epistemological triangle. Findings: The navigation between determinism as a property of the observed, and determinability as a property of the observer follows the navigation between realist and constructivist perspectives, and thus has a bearing on the navigation of the kinds of design research distinguished by Frayling, and their implied primary evaluation criteria. Research limitations/implications – The presented argument advocates a constructivist view, which, however, is not meant to imply a rejection of, but rather, an additional degree of freedom extending the realist view. Originality/value – This discussion contributes to the establishment of observational determinability as observer-dependent. The proposed framework connects the navigation between deterministic observables and determining observers to the navigation between the design criteria form, meaning and utility. This may be of value within and beyond design research.
Fischer T. & Richards L. D. (2017) From goal-oriented to constraint-oriented design: The cybernetic intersection of design theory and systems theory. Leonardo 50(1): 36–41. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/2299
This paper traces the changing notions of constraints in design and of systems since the mid-20th century in the intersection of design theory and systems theory. Taking a second-order cybernetic perspective, the paper develops constraints as observer dependent, and it analyzes conditions under which constraints tend to be beneficial or detrimental. Ethical implications of constraints in design processes are established with reference to system boundaries. Constraint-oriented design is discussed as an alternative to goal-oriented design, and a method called constraint reversal is introduced as a strategy of deliberate defiance of constraints to support design exploration.
Herr C. M. & Fischer T. (2010) Digital drifting: Minimally instructive education for tool-aided creativity in Asia. Cybernetics & Human Knowing 17(1–2): 37–57.
This paper introduces a teaching approach that applies the circular and conversational nature of design to itself. To this end we have developed workshops that, within the time frame of usually five days over three weekends, allow students to abandon and renegotiate preconceived terms of engagement and goals in design conversations and to develop appreciation for, and readiness to adopt, unforeseen events with unexpected qualities. We show how avoiding goal-driven linear processes, and embracing circular causality, can provide a fertile environment for students to develop new ideas not only in applied designing but also in design management.
Herr C. M. & Fischer T. (2013) Systems for Showing and Repurposing: A Second-Order Cybernetic Reflection on Some Cellular Automata Projects. Journal of Mathematics and System Science 3: 201–216. Fulltext at https://cepa.info/2323
Over the course of the past 70 years, the objectives of CA (cellular automata) research shifted from speculative and illustrative purposes without immediate goals outside of given implementations to the more utilitarian scientific and engineering objectives of simulating, controlling and predicting other phenomena. Looking back at our own 10-year history of CA related work, however, we recognize a generally inverse tendency from utilitarian objectives to finding more illustrative and speculative value. In this paper, we present a reflection on our own body of CA work, and we discuss the qualities of the various outcomes and insights we gained from a second-order cybernetic perspective. We argue that much of our own CA work may best be understood as creating machines for showing and for repurposing that allow their observers to gain new (second-order cybernetic) ways of seeing from interacting with them.