Key words: autopoiesis, complexity theory, cybernetics, luhmann

This paper deals with organisational complexity, seen from the perspective of its unfolding from global to local concerns. Historically, this unfolding has produced rigid social systems, where those in power positions have forced unfair constraints over the majorities at the local level, and often excluded them. There is a need to move towards flexible, fair, social systems, inclusive in character. This transformation requires an increasing appreciation of communication problems in society and the embodiment of effective social systems. This transformation is presented as a problem‐solving paradigm which requires social systems with capacity to create and produce their own meanings, with capacity to manage necessary structural couplings among existing social systems, thus making this management a heuristic to produce necessary social differentiation to overcome communication failures among existing self‐producing, operationally closed, social systems. A key construct used in this paper to practically produce this management is the viable system model, developed by Stafford Beer.

Key words: cybernetics, complexity theory, communications, social interaction.

Insights into the nondual relationship of organism and environment and their processual nature have resulted in numerous efforts at understanding human behavior and motivation from a holistic and contextual perspective. Meadian social theory, cultural historical activity theory (CHAT), ecological psychology, and some interpretations of complexity theory persist in relating human activity to the wider and more scientifically valid view that a process metaphysics suggests. I would like to articulate a concept from ecological psychology – that of affordance – and relate it to aspects of phenomenology and neuroscience such that interpretations of the self, cognition, and the brain are understood as similar to interpretations of molar behaviors exhibited in social processes. Experience with meditation as a method of joining normal reflective consciousness with “awareness” is described and suggested as a useful tool in coming to better understand the nondual nature of the body. Relevance: The article directly addresses problems and strategies for conceptualizing and working with nondual phenomena and the paradoxes therein.

A ‘pervasive’ problem in the social sciences, referred to as the ‘micro to macro problem’ concerns our capacity to explain the relationship between the constitutive elements of social systems (people) and emergent phenomena resulting from their interaction (i.e. organizations, societies, economies). Without a capacity to explain this relationship there is, in effect, no substantive theory of sociality. In this article, we explore the potential of a synthesis between autopoietic and complexity theory for understanding social systems in a way that addresses this issue. It is argued that autopoietic theory provides a basis for understanding the characteristics of the microlevel agents that make up social systems – human individuals, whereas complexity theory provides a basis for understanding how these characteristics influence the range and type of macro-level phenomena that arise from their interaction. The synthesis proposed here provides the basis for a theory of sociality that deals consistently with the relationship between the micro and macro-levels of social phenomena and their ontological status. This approach has the potential to re-unite current scientific oppositions and avoid unnecessary pluralism within social science.

Key words: autopoiesis, complexity theory, critical realism, social science, social systems, sociology.

Abstract: For many years we have been concerned with the role that autopoietic theory can play in resolving what is often termed the micro-macro problem in social science. The ‘micro-to-macro problem’ concerns our capacity to explain the relationship between the constitutive elements of social systems (people) and emergent phenomena resulting from their interaction (i.e. organizations, societies, economies). To this end we have argued (Goldspink and Kay 2003, 2004), for a synthesis of autopoietic and complexity theory, where autopoietic theory provides a basis for understanding the characteristics of the micro-level agents that make up social systems (human individuals), whilst complexity theory provides a basis for understanding how these characteristics influence the range and type of macro-level behaviours that arise from their interaction. Implicit to this view is the assumption that it is biology which specifies the characteristics and qualities of human agents. Therefore it is also biology which constrains the range and type of interactions these agents can generate, and hence the form of structure which emerges from that interaction. This approach differs considerably from the disembodied sociological path taken in Luhmann’s (1990) application of autopoietic systems. The main contribution of Maturana and Varela’s (1980) autopoietic theory has been to provide a concise specification of the defining characteristics of biological agents including humans. It serves therefore to advance our understanding of the micro facet of the micro-macro problem. Before his death, Varela began to explore further the implications of autopoiesis for understanding social macro phenomena drawing increasingly on a complex systems view (Thompson and Varela 2001; Rudrauf et al. 2003). We seek to extend this offshoot of the original contribution. In this chapter we attend in particular, to some of the practical implications that result from a social extension of autopoiesis. Principle amongst these is our understanding of the basis for and nature of organizational change. We begin by giving a brief overview of the micro-macro problem and an outline of our approach to its resolution. We then draw on this approach to develop a perspective on stability and change in organizations. We illustrate this using two cases and in so doing also provide examples of methods which can be used to map the interplay of micro and macro behaviour in particular organizational contexts.

Purpose: Following Polanyi, this paper aims to suggest that the Industrial Revolution marked a break‐point between pre‐industrial society (characterised by integration) and industrial society (characterised by differentiation). Design/methodology/approach – As a conceptual paper, the focus is on drawing out the implications of Luhmann’s application of the theory of autopoiesis to industrial society. This discussion leads to critical reflection on the state we are in and the active role we can each play in bringing about change. Findings: Differentiation, without an overall co‐ordination and control function within society, has led to the sub‐systems (and organisations) becoming self‐serving or pathologically autopoietic. Society has a capacity for self‐observation, through such mediums as the mass media. Alarm at the apparent increasing rate of change in both social and ecological systems reported by the mass media appears to be drawing us towards a second break‐point. The outcome of this revolution, should it come about, is impossible to predict but descent into a new “dark age” is an option as is the re‐integration of economic activity with social, religious and political functions. Luhmann’s autopoiesis provides a convincing explanation for how society is structured and observing the implications of this. The role of the mass media as an observing system and in bringing information about change to society’s attention is emphasised. Practical implications: The paper seeks to provide an explanation for how society is structured and demonstrate how society appears to be passively observing the implications of this. Proposals for both restructuring and the actions we, as active citizens and organisational members, can take to redress our current state are advanced. Originality/value – The paper brings together ideas from a diverse range of fields (including autopoiesis, complexity theory, and systems) and applies them to a highly significant topic.

Purpose–This paper aims to combine several modes of thought based on systems organization and observing systems in order to construct a model for a “designerly way of thinking”. Design/methodology/approach–The approach is to regard design as a “groundless field of knowledge” that may source methodological insights from cybernetics, systems theory, cognitive studies and complexity theory, among others. Findings–The focus of this research is to model an adaptive frame-of-reference that design students may use in order to construct their own autopoietic identity systems. The semantic question “How does a student obtain information about design?” is changed to a structural question “How could students acquire a structure enabling them to operate innovatively in a modern design environment?” With the backing of cybernetic principles, it is apparent that this process is not only feasible but also preferable. Practical implications–While the practical use that can be made of any design theory is not within the remit of this paper, it is nonetheless the goal of theory to enhance the individual’s analytical and communicative skills. Originality/value–This paper suggests an autopoietic model-for-becoming that can have the virtual potential of bringing one to understand the grey areas of human-object relationships.

Key words: autopoiseses, cybernetes, constructivist, identity, inter-relational

Excerpt: In this chapter we argue that a theoretical position derived from a combination of autopoietic theory and complexity theory provides a means for addressing two fundamental problems with the knowledge management (KM) concept. These problems are a lack of consistent epistemology – inadequate theorization about the nature of knowledge and a tendency to identify knowledge as residing primarily at the level of individuals. It represents an opportunity to move away from the reified view of knowledge that dominates most discussions of KM to one of knowledge which is deeply situated and contextualized. We argue that organizations are complex systems of a particular class; they comprise human (biological, reflexive) agents. This has important implications for the range and type of behaviors we can expect from organizations, but it also has implications for how we theorize about them.

This paper explores how discourse analysis can benefit from the main tenets of complexity theory: including its holistic (or systemic) perspective in the research of any object, always in relation to its emergency conditions; and transdisciplinarity as methodology. If applied to the study of discourse, it revitalizes ethnography as an empirical methodology, constructivism as a theoretical starting position, and the integration of discourse analysis with rhetoric, argumentation theory and semiotics, among other disciplines.

Context: Convictions arising from different, separate and distinct domains and paradigms (modeling-based learning (MbL), Papert’s constructionism, literature on play from the domain of early childhood education, complexity theory) agree in favor of a need for a shift in education that will allow (young) children to access what Papert refers to as “hard learning” that consequently leads to “hard fun.” Problem: Nevertheless, such an achievement demands supporting learning in a manner that seems difficult for teachers to comprehend and handle. Method: In this article, we provide three learning stories. These constitute parts of an effort to develop a joint mathematics and science curriculum for early childhood education parallel to supporting teachers so that they deliver and, at the same time, are able to value and assess the learning involved. The first story concerns teachers’ learning whereas the second and third story concern 5-year-olds’ learning. Results: In all three stories, we see how the researcher (author), teachers and children learn (about creative learning) together. By the end of this article, the three stories will allow us to describe and redefine MbL and at the same time highlight the constructivism foundations of MbL and the common ground between MbL and the constructionism paradigm. Implications: Furthermore, the stories as a whole will allow us to argue that all it takes to move away from traditional practices is a shift in how learning is conceptualized. Constructivist content: The article is built on the constructionism approach, which focuses on the value of learners acquiring access to powerful ideas through meaningful constructivist learning processes.

Key words: Mathematics, teacher education, modeling-based learning, early childhood education, creative learning